Markets in the Middle Ages in South Wales: Medieval retail therapy

  Markets have been held in the Welsh Marches since Medieval times: this one, in Abergavenny has been on Tuesdays for nearly 800 years. We have a reference to it between 1256 and 1267 when Lord Edward was in possession of the lordships of Abergavenny, Monmouth and the Three Castles.          Recently some official (officious?) pronouncement advised the elderly that, when walking on icy pavements, they should imitate the gait of the penguin and toddle slowly, beak down and body bent forward. That is exactly how I proceed in a market so that I am sure of spotting any bargains whilst honing my bartering skills.
   Before the advent of markets, trade was more in the form of barter and we know that a good horse was worth 12 cows as was a quality hawk or a sword: the earliest mention of money in this area was towards the end of the 11th century when payment was in gold or silver or even in coins from Saxon England. An interesting cashless sale by 2 brothers in 740 was 500 acres of land between the Rivers Monnow and Wye in exchange for 24 cows, a good horse, a precious sword and a Saxon woman but we do not know who received what.

The growth and organisation of markets
   Towns grew up around the great castles imposed by the Norman conquerors in the Welsh Marches and provided defence as well as supplying goods. A chain of markets in these settlements evolved according to 2 different systems: the "trader" model and the "consumer" type. It is likely that the Marches combined both. In the trader model, local markets were held on consecutive weekdays within a day's journey of one another so that a merchant could visit them all in turn and stock up on Saturday at ports such as Gloucester.
   There were 2 circuits in Monmouthshire although they were probably not discrete: Grosmont held a market on Mondays; Abergavenny on Tuesdays; Monmouth on Wednesdays; Ross on Thursdays and Newent on Fridays. There was another market at Grosmont on Fridays, a Monday and Thursday one at Crickhowell and one established later on Wednesdays at Tretower. On a different route, Usk's day was Monday, Tryleg's Wednesday, Caerleon's Thursday and Newport's on Saturday, leaving Tuesday again free for Abergavenny. Where there was sufficient trade, markets could be held in nearby places on the same day (consumer model) and there were others I have not mentioned.

   Records for a comparable town (Newark in 1328) show that goods traded included: corn, salted meat and bacon, furs, sheep, goats, pigs, fresh meat, fleeces, tanned hides, cloth, iron, steel, tin, woad, wine, wool, fruit, nuts, timber, horses, hay, rushes glass, garlic, salt, firewood, coal, nails and horseshoes. To maximise trade, markets were placed so that travellers had to pass through them to go on their way and shops may have grown around them. The trade they engendered in the 13th and 14th centuries did not reach such intensity again until the agrarian and industrial revolutions. Records reveal exports, too, into England from Chepstow, Caerleon and Usk of salmon, oxen, pigs, lampreys, partridges, malt and vinegar.

Their place in the political structure
    Permission for markets and fairs in South East Wales was in the hands of the Marcher Lords (not in the control of the king as in England) and these happenings became part of a calculated political strategy for their emerging aspirations. Such commercial dealings led to great social change as surplus consumers and traders were brought together in a recognised place from which a ruling elite could draw revenue. This facilitated the funding of armies so that territorial ambitions could be fulfilled. It was therefore in the best interest of the lords to encourage an efficient system in their area and the process of establishing a market went along with the growth of a new town and borough. A lord would then have to co-operate or at least take into account the patterns of trade in a neighbouring lordship of which there were several in this area in that period. No point in disrupting a working economy!

   We still love a market and the bustle and excitement that a good one creates. Added to this we can enjoy a sense of partaking in a way of life that is hundreds of years old - and, as always in this blog, savour a large slice of CAKE after our retail therapy.

In the Tithe Barn cafe, Abergavenny

As these towns mostly grew up around castles, you might like to fit in a visit whilst you are there. I have written about Abergavenny Castle, Usk Castle and Monmouth Castle and there are also the Roman remains at Caerleon and fascinating things to see at Trellech (Tryleg.) Of the Three Castles, Skenfrith, Grosmont and White Castles, I have, so far, covered the last.

Caerleon: the Roman Baths

Roman Baths
  The bath house was an essential and central part of Roman life, providing exercise, hygiene and a meeting place for social contact. It was therefore even more of a necessity in a fortress to promote health and cohesion. Typically, it would contain a: "frigidarium" (cold room), "tepidarium" (warm ), "caldarium" (steaming hot) and "natatio", the swimming pool. There was also a  heated changing room, "apodyterium": all the warmth came from underfloor hypocausts which were so effective that slippers had to be worn to protect the feet in the caldarium.
  These rooms would be taken in sequence and one suspects that each soldier would develop his own preferences: at one point he would rub his body with oil which would later be scraped off with a curved bronze or copper tool called a "strigil" to remove dirt and sweat also. One of these instruments is on display. If the bather had a slave, it would be his task to clean up the resulting mess!
  Now you can gaze into the natatio and watch realistic and beautiful projections of swimmers, first single, then two or more: it is mesmerising and convincing.

In the Caerleon baths
  The baths were excavated in 1964 and 1981 and were found to have been built around AD 75 on an enormous scale covering an area the size of Wells Cathedral, 360 feet long. Bath houses were always constructed in stone rather than wood from the start because of the risk of fire. Their high roofs would have dominated the skyline.
   What we have in this building is about one sixth of the whole: part of the swimming pool, the cold room at right angles to it and remains of the changing rooms, heating channels and deep drains. The swimming pool would have extended under the walls at the far end and at the near end you can see where it was reduced in size, presumably to save water when the legion was lessened in manpower. There is no nearby natural spring to feed the pools and water had to be brought in for 5 miles through lead piping: the swimming pool needed 80,250 gallons. At the shallow end there had been an ornate Fountain House with water cascading down steps of Purbeck marble.
    Usually the bath area would have been outside the fortress but at Caerleon it is inside. As part of the complex there was a huge exercise hall and courtyard. Because of the climate there was an indoor space for wrestling, boxing, weight-lifting and ball games but the more military practices of javelin throwing and archery would have been outdoors. The men had to be ultra-fit and they were provided with luxurious facilities for keeping in peak condition.

The human angle

  Objects found during excavation reveal much about the people who used the baths. Gems were lost - or stolen if the man did not have a slave to guard his possessions - and other touching items such as baby teeth and hairpins indicate that family members were allowed to use the facilities at specified times. The strigil on display in Caerleon is made of copper inlaid with gold, silver and brass, decorated with images of the 12 labours of Hercules and was probably one of a set of 3 owned by a rich man - an up-market accessory! Games counters, dice, chicken bones, pig's ribs and broken pottery were uncovered, suggesting that there was a snack bar and space for gambling. Archaeologists surmise that there would have been high arching ceilings imitating the grandeur of Rome with painted walls, carved stonework and mosaic floors. This reads like an advertisement for the most expensive modern leisure centre!

Note the studs on the sole
 to aid durability for long marches.

Your visit
   The baths at Bath are famous and rightly so for their size and atmospheric steam rising from the hot water but the baths at Caerleon are also fascinating, less crowded and free! They are located at the back of the Bull Inn car park. For opening times click here. While you are in the town you can also visit the museum (where there are toilets) and walk on to the amphitheatre before crossing the road to the remains of the barracks (more toilets!) After that, excellent CAKE opportunities await in The Snug in the charming little mews-like Ferrum with its slightly OTT Arthurian statues. That calorie intake will give you the energy to take the no 60 bus to Usk with its castle or Monmouth, the birthplace of Henry V - or stop off at Llangybi to see and sip from its ancient well.

Geoffrey of Monmouth and King Arthur

 Who was Geoffrey?
   He called himself Galfridus Monemutensis which suggests he was born and brought up in Monmouthsire, (if not in Monmouth itself) possibly near Caerleon which he often mentions. He was a teacher and secular canon in Oxford. Round about 1135 to 1148, he wrote, in Latin, the History of the Kings of Britain or Historia Regum Britannicum. Tradition has it that he composed it sitting in this window at the Priory in Monmouth but this is unproven.
   With its chapter on Arthur of Britain, it popularised the story of this hero, treating him as a factual figure who fought against the invading Saxons - and many other threatening enemies. The work had the impact of a best-seller at the time and took the Norman world by storm.  His account, in general, has been criticised for inaccuracy and confusion, even invention.
   Yet I feel there is at least one very good reason for crediting Arthur with some degree of historical authenticity: in the Middle Ages originality was not valued and an author was revered for having a respected source for his material. Geoffrey states categorically that Walter the Archdeacon gave him "a certain very ancient book written in the Brittanic tongue" to translate into Latin. It is more likely, because of the habits of mind at the time, that he followed this source rather than making up stories, although some of the aspects of the narrative have a legendary feel. No-one has yet successfully identified the source book. Embellishment - yes; confusion and error - yes; creation from scratch - no!

Precursors - and afterwards
   Much earlier Arthur had been connected with prehistoric stones which he could throw for incredible distances but he may have been confused with a Celtic god: in Welsh Arth Fawr means Great Bear. If you slur your words as you say it, you arrive at Arthur and may have noticed the link with the constellation. This term might have been a title rather than a name. Arthur as such emerges around 500 in historical sources as "dux bellorum" or "leader of warfare." Other writers before Geoffrey had dealt with the character of Arthur under different titles:  Gildas, a priest from Wales around 550 who does not name Arthur as such; another probable Welshman who mentions the Battle of Badon and Arthur, called Nennius, around 830; and also the Welsh Annals.
   Yet it was Geoffrey who stirred up what became world-wide interest in him, his knights, the Round Table, the Holy Grail, Guinevere and Merlin although he did not mention some of these.  William of Malmesbury (12th century historian) called Arthur "a man worthy to be celebrated, not by idle fictions, but by authentic history." His story was picked up by: Chrétien de Troyes, a French writer, around 1160-90; the Mabinogian in the 14th century translated in 1846; Sir Thomas Malory, an Englishman, in Le Morte d'Arthur about 1469-70; Dryden and Purcell in an opera based on him in 1691 and Tennyson in his Idylls of the King (partly planned and written in Caerleon) published between 1859 and 1885. Mark Twain and William Morris interested themselves in the narrative and there have been a musical, Camelot, books and films based on the stories. Many of these have been sell-outs as each writer adapted the core to their own epoch.
   King Edward III revived the traditions to support his own image and Henry Tudor claimed descent from Arthur to help to prove his right to the throne. His name is kept alive in the present royal family and the names of characters connected with him are well known. The expression "Holy Grail" is part of modern language.

Geoffrey's account
   

A knight at the Tewkesbury re-enactment 2016: if you know his name let me know!

  Although a figure such as this charismatic gentleman above is our image of the ideal, it is interesting to see what Geoffrey actually maintained in his text. His version includes: the crowning of Arthur at 15 years of age; his battles against the Saxons and many others, Picts, Scots, Irish and Romans, particularly Lucius Hiberius; rousing speeches; his wonderful sword Caliburn [sic] forged on the Isle of Avalon; his marriage to Guinevere (Welsh Gwenhwyfar), Gawain; his Christianity; the treachery of Mordred and a battle at Camblan [sic] in which he was mortally wounded and taken to Avalon for medical treatment. He does not relate the actual death, although Arthur handed the crown to his cousin, Constantine. The next chapters deal with Merlin, also called Ambrosius.

  The code of  courtly conduct which we associate with Arthur is spoken of as the fame of his "generosity and bravery spread to the very ends of the earth" and aroused awe in faraway kings. His court, placed firmly and possibly erroneously, by Geoffrey at Caerleon-on-Usk, with its meadows and groves, royal palaces and gold-painted gables of roofs, held a festival attended by the great and the good from all over.  At this there was a huge banquet and a tournament with "flirtatious behaviour" although the women would not give their love to any man who had not proved himself 3 times in battle. "In this way the womenfolk became chaste and more virtuous and for their love the knights were ever more daring."

  Yet, it seems to me that this is a small part of a narrative largely concerned with battle, bloodshed and extreme violence. The account and its language are strewn with scenes of death incorporating phrases depicting suffering and the realities of war: Arthur besieged his enemies so that they died of starvation; he spared no-one of the Scots and Picts who fell into his hands - which seems contrary to the code of chivalry as we perceive it; against the Irish he "cut them to pieces mercilessly"; the battles seem disorderly with "a bedlam of shouting" and men "vomiting forth their life with their heart's blood." He and his entourage were particularly partial to hacking down through the helmet and head of the enemy.  

Analysis

  Geoffrey makes many errors and what we have is probably an amalgamation of several characters. Certain aspects seem legendary even to the casual eye: the numbers of troops appear to me too rounded and neat to be literal as Arthur had in his own legion six thousand, six hundred and sixty-six men whereas in the divisions were five thousand, five hundred and fifty-five - and yet there is detailed military strategy. Arthur encounters the monster of Mont-Saint-Michel and has a magic dream. 

   Readers all over the world seem content with a glorified or fictional image of Arthur: I can easily understand the need in Great Britain to eulogise men and women, who fought courageously against invaders, such as Boudicca, Alfred the Great, and Hereward the Wake (although it is odd that the Normans admired a victorious native hero since the descendants of Britons were now the Welsh who could have read the book as a call to arms). It is even less obvious why other nations have responded with such undying enthusiasm to a British king who may not have existed.

  My theory is that there was a historic and heroic figure named a variant of Arthur living between 400 and 600 who had the potential to attract admiration and fascination because of a combination of simplicity and complexity in the narrative. He himself can be transformed into the ideal king, brave and magnanimous, but he has also a wide group of adherents many of whom have their own story and there is a love interest and a touch of magic. The interface between history and legend adds to the charm. Many people believe that Arthur is not dead and may return: for them he is the "once and future king". All these features have international resonance.

   I have skimmed the surface of the vast amount of material about this figure but I shall return to him because of his many associations with Monmouthshire and the lure of the quest, I shall grasp the nettle in my armoured hand!

Visiting the site

   You can see the window at which Geoffrey may have written his book by walking up left from Agincourt Square in Monmouth, with its Shire Hall and statue of Henry V in a high niche, past the church and turning right into the small paved garden of the Priory. You can take a look at the ruins of Monmouth Castle a bit lower down and off the main street. Then you can take the no 60 bus to Caerleon where Geoffrey placed Arthur's festival and plenary court and see the site of the Roman amphitheatre once called Arthur's Round Table. You could also stop off on the no 60 in Usk and visit its castle.

Caerleon: the Roman Legionary Museum

The Museum
   The classical frontage of the Roman Legionary Museum in Caerleon was constructed in 1850 and is described in Pevsner as "the handsome and scholarly four-column Greek Doric portico of Bath stone ashlar ... by H.F Lockwood of Hull." (Ashlar is finely worked masonry). The collection inside this small but delightful building contains half a million objects from Isca (Caerleon) and Burrium (Usk) such as pots, decorative pieces, replicas and genuine Roman and Medieval  surgical instruments (on temporary exhibition) and items connected with death and burial. Other vibrant exhibits are models of soldiers in full regalia and murals depicting military scenes. Outside is a lovely peaceful Roman-style garden where you can relax during your visit. The staff are particularly knowledgeable and helpful and are always keen to answer questions and point out items. The Museum is very child-friendly.

Roman Caerleon
   Building started circa AD 75 when the then Governor of Britain, Sextus Julius Frontinus, was given the task of settling the remaining unconquered areas of the country: particularly troublesome was the tribe of this part of Wales, the Silures. He selected Isca as a prime site as it could be reached by sea-going vessels if reinforcement or extra supplies were needed and Usk had proved liable to flooding. The original defences were of turf, clay and timber which were replaced around 100 AD by stone walls and towers. The Legio II Augusta stationed here was named after the founder emperor Augustus and was part of the original invasion force. The fortress contained barrack blocks, baths, a hospital and workshops for legionary craftsmen including blacksmiths, carpenters, shoemakers etc. Along with Chester, it was one of the two centres designed to subdue the intractable tribes of Wales with a system of forts and roads.

Later
    Geoffrey of Monmouth (early 12th century) cites Caerleon as one of the most important cities in Britain. Archdeacon Coxe, visiting in 1798, quotes (in a florid translation from the Latin), Giraldus Cambriensis who wrote in the 12th century: "Many remains of its former magnificence are still visible; splendid palaces which once emulated with their gilded roofs the grandeur of Rome, for it was originally built by the Roman princes, and adorned with stately edifices."  Giraldus was also impressed by the "subterraneous [sic] buildings, aqueducts, and vaulted caverns; and what appeared to me most remarkable, stoves so excellently contrived, as to diffuse their heat through secret and imperceptible pores." The last remark seems a cry from the heart of a cold wet native. The Archdeacon himself was underwhelmed by what he saw but the ruins we now know were not then fully excavated and he would have been thrilled at what modern planners have done to make the heritage accessible and exciting.

Romans as conquerors
   Although the Romans exploited Britain for metals such as the gold found in the Dolaucothi mines of Wales, they brought benefits to the country with their roads, dykes, watermills, improved agrarian practices, sophisticated mining technology and trade and, whilst proving strong rulers, tried to have some degree of integration with the native inhabitants. They did not suppress religious beliefs and offered the possibility of Roman citizenship, "Civis Romanus Sum" (I am a Roman Citizen) being one of the proudest boasts a man could make. "Civis" resonates as a word full of meaning and implication. Their occupation, though not without harshness and troubles, contrasts with that of the early Norman period with its frequent major rebellions. There was a phrase "Pax Romana" (Roman peace) to describe the stability they brought to their Empire. It is interesting that our word "virtue" comes from the Latin "virtus" meaning all the best qualities a brave man could have.

Elsewhere in Caerleon
   Opening times for this museum are posted on its website and you may also like to view the huge and impressive amphitheatre as well as the foundations of the barracks (the only such visible in Europe) and the fascinating Baths (much less crowded than those in Bath). All these sites have free entry. I have put bus details on the other posts and added suggestions of nearby places of historic interest on local bus routes. I will write about the Baths later.

Caerleon: the Roman barracks

The living quarters
Caerleon or Isca, being the home of the second Augustan Legion from 74 AD until late in the 4th century, needed substantial barracks to house up to 6000 soldiers. The stone foundations of these lie across the road from the Amphitheatre and beyond a field where you can take your responsible dog for a walk if you wish. They are the only such visible remains in Europe and are impressive in themselves as well as affording pleasure working out their layout, guessing (since there are few signs) what was what and imagining the life of the heavily armed and highly trained men who lived there. Probably this accommodation was rarely at full occupancy since the men might have been sent elsewhere in the country or be out on patrol. The structures above these foundations would have been made of wood.

The layout
  There are pairs of long, narrow blocks 74 metres long facing each other and reflecting the division of the legion into double centuries (each consisting, confusingly, of 80 men). Each room was shared by 8 men with the centurion having a space up to 5 times larger that of the squaddy. Small anterooms for storage perhaps helped to keep the sleeping areas tidy and provided somewhere for the mattresses or palliasses to be put away in daytime. When some soldiers would be on night guard there was a little more room and one can imagine one man returning and prodding the next on duty with a weary and impatient foot. There may have been a veranda running down one side and an area for administration. The accommodation reflected the gulf between the commissioned centurion and common soldier: we know that in about 100 AD the former was paid 5000 denarii pa and the latter 300.

Food etc
   There is no mess hall and food would have been brought back from the small domed communal bread ovens, stamped with identifying marks. Corellius Audax and Sentius Paulinus performed this duty and, together with the baking itself, it must have been one of the more pleasant tasks. There were 2 types of loaf, one made with more refined flour for the officers. Meals might have consisted of pottage with scraps of meat and fish sauce, cheese with olive oil, beer and wine, some ingredients being scavenged from neighbouring farms and some imported. Soldiers at Caerleon drank Aminean wine washing down, possibly, beef, lamb, goat, deer, hare and the occasional treat of sucking pig.
   Off duty the soldiers played games: counters and boards have been found elsewhere to prove this. Other occupations were the checking and cleaning of armour and equipment. There would have been time for worship of the several gods and military exercises in the amphitheatre as well as gory entertainment there. Such items as tweezers and nail cleaners for personal hygiene have been found and the baths were a central social facility. To keep the unruly Silures in their place, the soldiers had to be super-fit although their accommodation was centrally heated.

The latrines: a Roman's gotta go when a Roman's gotta go.

    The remains of these are at the far end and they were communal with wooden seats over the drainage area. The men would have spread out their tunics to give themselves some privacy and cleansed themselves afterwards with a sponge on a stick (kept in a keyhole opening to the side) which was then rinsed in water running in a channel in front of them. This could be done without leaving the seats or lifting the garments. The cartoon shows a bucket for this purpose but I prefer the theory of fresh water! The whole process probably had a sociable aspect which we might now find strange.
   Cleaning of the latrines would probably have been done by the men themselves and supervised: there were "ad cunus" (drain duties) and "ad stercus" (latrine duties). The disposal of the waste was less carefully supervised!

   There are toilets nearby. Your visit to the barracks can be supplemented by looking at the amphitheatre, the fascinating baths and friendly museum, all of which are free. Caerleon is well served by buses which I have listed on my post about the amphitheatre. From Caerleon you can easily use the no 60 bus to visit Usk castle and nearby Medieval battle site as well as the memorial to Alfred Russel Wallace. You could stop off at Llangibby with its ancient well or go on to Raglan Castle or further to Monmouth with its connections to Henry V.

The Roman Amphitheatre in Caerleon

   

Unique

  This impressive amphitheatre is the only one of its kind preserved in Britain and is free to visit, a microadventure 2000 years back in time. It is remarkable that any of it survives as many of the stones were plundered by local inhabitants as building materials for their own dwellings. The Romans settled in Isca, as they called Caerleon, deriving the name from that of the river Usk (Wysg), from 74 A.D. to late in the 4th century. The town was a neat walled rectangle housing members of the Second Augustan Legion, transferred from Strasbourg to Britain in 43 A.D. Most of it is buried under the present village.

The troops watch

  This construction was used for gory combats between gladiators, animal baiting and military exercises and was built around 80 A.D., the same time as the Colosseum. Up to 6000 soldiers would watch from the massive oval earth banks revetted with stone and buttressed on the outside. On the inside the stone was covered with white plaster and on top of the banks were tiers of wooden seats. You can still see a working drain beneath a grille.

  I was transfixed by the sign on the floor where a gladiator stood before entering the arena, possibly never to come out alive.

Legend and fact

  Until the twentieth century the site was known as King Arthur's Round Table, possibly because of Tennyson's links with Caerleon, and was believed to be Camelot. (The poet pondered on and planned Idylls of the King in the Hanbury Arms.) It was excavated in 1926-7 by Sir Mortimer Wheeler and his wife and revealed as the marvel we can relish today.

   I stood where he stood when his blood

   Ran cold and dry, then hot

   As Roman sun, so distant now

   And cooling like his fighter's vow

   To win at Camelot.

Then and now

  Where there was crimson-stained sand, there is now grass, and where men and beasts fought to the death, small boys can now have an informal game of football - though the last one I happened to see was getting fairly blood-thirsty by the end. It quite put me off my CAKE.

There is open access to this site.  Other sites of great interest are: the friendly Museum, the Roman Baths and the remains of the Barracks - all free to enter. You can also go on to Usk on the no 60 bus where the Legion was stationed previously.

Apart from the number 60 bus (see footnote at the very bottom of page) there is a frequent local service (27, 28, 29) between Caerleon and Newport, about 10 minutes away.

For opening hours click here

Usk park

Somewhere quiet to picnic
   This plaque tells of the history of the park which is a short walk from the Usk bus stops in Twyn Square and children can play whilst you lounge here as well as taking a look at the wild flower garden dedicated to Jane Hathaway. Brynbuga is the Welsh for Usk and the final part can be pronounced "beega" so as not to sound rude.

Possible Roman connection
   During the 1960's and 1970's excavations in Usk revealed the remains of two groups of granaries used to store the provisions needed to feed the Twentieth Roman Legion whilst it was stationed in Usk. Since these foundations were of wood, they were covered over again to avoid rot and it is difficult to find out where they were. Some knowledgeable local residents believe they may have been here, in this field, and say there interesting remains of occupation under the grass. If you Google the excavations you will see a photograph showing how huge these stores were by comparison to the diggers working on them. However, the size of the site suggests to some historians that the granaries were in the field behind the Sessions House. Later, because of flooding in Usk, the soldiers were moved to Caerleon.